The Debate about Cloning - Part II

How to cope with your abuser?

Sometimes it looks hopeless. II. Issues in the Calculus of Rights

IIA. The Hierarchy of Rights

All human cultures have hierarchies of rights. These hierarchies reflect cultural mores and lores and there cannot, therefore, be a universal, or eternal hierarchy.

In Western moral systems, the Right to Life supersedes all other rights (including the right to one's body, to comfort, to the avoidance of pain, to property, etc.).

Yet, this hierarchical arrangement does not help us to resolve cases in which there is a clash of EQUAL rights (for instance, the conflicting rights to life of two people). One way to decide among equally potent claims is randomly (by flipping a coin, or casting dice). Alternatively, we could add and subtract rights in a somewhat macabre arithmetic. If a mother's life is endangered by the continued existence of a fetus and assuming both of them have a right to life we can decide to kill the fetus by adding to the mother's right to life her right to her own body and thus outweighing the fetus' right to life.

IIB. The Difference between Killing and Letting Die

There is an assumed difference between killing (taking life) and letting die (not saving a life). This is supported by IE above. While there is a right not to be killed - there is no right to have one's own life saved. Thus, while there is an obligation not to kill - there is no obligation to save a life.

IIC. Killing the Innocent

Often the continued existence of an innocent person (IP) threatens to take the life of a victim (V). By "innocent" we mean "not guilty" - not responsible for killing V, not intending to kill V, and not knowing that V will be killed due to IP's actions or continued existence.

It is simple to decide to kill IP to save V if IP is going to die anyway shortly, and the remaining life of V, if saved, will be much longer than the remaining life of IP, if not killed. All other variants require a calculus of hierarchically weighted rights. (See "Abortion and the Sanctity of Human Life" by Baruch A. Brody).

One form of calculus is the utilitarian theory. It calls for the maximization of utility (life, happiness, pleasure). In other words, the life, happiness, or pleasure of the many outweigh the life, happiness, or pleasure of the few. It is morally permissible to kill IP if the lives of two or more people will be saved as a result and there is no other way to save their lives. Despite strong philosophical objections to some of the premises of utilitarian theory - I agree with its practical prescriptions.

In this context - the dilemma of killing the innocent - one can also call upon the right to self defence. Does V have a right to kill IP regardless of any moral calculus of rights? Probably not. One is rarely justified in taking another's life to save one's own. But such behaviour cannot be condemned. Here we have the flip side of the confusion - understandable and perhaps inevitable behaviour (self defence) is mistaken for a MORAL RIGHT. That most V's would kill IP and that we would all sympathize with V and understand its behaviour does not mean that V had a RIGHT to kill IP. V may have had a right to kill IP - but this right is not automatic, nor is it all-encompassing.

But is the Egg - Alive?

This question is NOT equivalent to the ancient quandary of "when does life begin". Life crystallizes, at the earliest, when an egg and a sperm unite (i.e., at the moment of fertilization). Life is not a potential - it is a process triggered by an event. An unfertilized egg is neither a process - nor an event. It does not even possess the potential to become alive unless and until it merges with a sperm. Should such merger not occur - it will never develop life.

The potential to become X is not the ontological equivalent of actually being X, nor does it spawn moral and ethical rights and obligations pertaining to X. The transition from potential to being is not trivial, nor is it automatic, or inevitable, or independent of context. Atoms of various elements have the potential to become an egg (or, for that matter, a human being) - yet no one would claim that they ARE an egg (or a human being), or that they should be treated as one (i.e., with the same rights and obligations).

Moreover, it is the donor nucleus embedded in the egg that endows it with life - the life of the cloned baby. Yet, the nucleus is usually extracted from a muscle or the skin. Should we treat a muscle or a skin cell with the same reverence the critics of cloning wish to accord an unfertilized egg?

Is This the Main Concern?

The main concern is that cloning - even the therapeutic kind - will produce piles of embryos. Many of them - close to 95% with current biotechnology - will die. Others can be surreptitiously and illegally implanted in the wombs of "surrogate mothers".

It is patently immoral, goes the precautionary argument, to kill so many embryos. Cloning is such a novel technique that its success rate is still unacceptably low. There are alternative ways to harvest stem cells - less costly in terms of human life. If we accept that life begins at the moment of fertilization, this argument is valid. But it also implies that - once cloning becomes safer and scientists more adept - cloning itself should be permitted.

This is anathema to those who fear a slippery slope. They abhor the very notion of "unnatural" conception. To them, cloning is a narcissistic act and an ignorant and dangerous interference in nature's sagacious ways. They would ban procreative cloning, regardless of how safe it is. Therapeutic cloning - with its mounds of discarded fetuses - will allow rogue scientists to cross the boundary between permissible (curative cloning) and illegal (baby cloning).

Why Should Baby Cloning be Illegal?

Cloning's opponents object to procreative cloning because it can be abused to design babies, skew natural selection, unbalance nature, produce masters and slaves and so on. The "argument from abuse" has been raised with every scientific advance - from in vitro fertilization to space travel.

Every technology can be potentially abused. Television can be either a wonderful educational tool - or an addictive and mind numbing pastime. Nuclear fission is a process that yields both nuclear weapons and atomic energy. To claim, as many do, that cloning touches upon the "heart" of our existence, the "kernel" of our being, the very "essence" of our nature - and thus threatens life itself - would be incorrect.

There is no "privileged" form of technological abuse and no hierarchy of potentially abusive technologies. Nuclear fission tackles natural processes as fundamental as life. Nuclear weapons threaten life no less than cloning. The potential for abuse is not a sufficient reason to arrest scientific research and progress - though it is a necessary condition.

Some fear that cloning will further the government's enmeshment in the healthcare system and in scientific research. Power corrupts and it is not inconceivable that governments will ultimately abuse and misuse cloning and other biotechnologies. Nazi Germany had a state-sponsored and state-mandated eugenics program in the 1930's.

Yet, this is another variant of the argument from abuse. That a technology can be abused by governments does not imply that it should be avoided or remain undeveloped. This is because all technologies - without a single exception - can and are abused routinely - by governments and others. This is human nature.

Fukuyama raised the possibility of a multi-tiered humanity in which "natural" and "genetically modified" people enjoy different rights and privileges. But why is this inevitable? Surely this can easily by tackled by proper, prophylactic, legislation?

All humans, regardless of their pre-natal history, should be treated equally. Are children currently conceived in vitro treated any differently to children conceived in utero? They are not. There is no reason that cloned or genetically-modified children should belong to distinct legal classes.

Unbalancing Nature

It is very anthropocentric to argue that the proliferation of genetically enhanced or genetically selected children will somehow unbalance nature and destabilize the precarious equilibrium it maintains. After all, humans have been modifying, enhancing, and eliminating hundreds of thousands of species for well over 10,000 years now. Genetic modification and bio-engineering are as natural as agriculture. Human beings are a part of nature and its manifestation. By definition, everything they do is natural.

Why would the genetic alteration or enhancement of one more species - homo sapiens - be of any consequence? In what way are humans "more important" to nature, or "more crucial" to its proper functioning? In our short history on this planet, we have genetically modified and enhanced wheat and rice, dogs and cows, tulips and orchids, oranges and potatoes. Why would interfering with the genetic legacy of the human species be any different?

Effects on Society

Cloning - like the Internet, the television, the car, electricity, the telegraph, and the wheel before it - is bound to have great social consequences. It may foster "embryo industries". It may lead to the exploitation of women - either willingly ("egg prostitution") or unwillingly ("womb slavery"). Charles Krauthammer, a columnist and psychiatrist, quoted in "The Economist", says:

"(Cloning) means the routinisation, the commercialisation, the commodification of the human embryo."

Exploiting anyone unwillingly is a crime, whether it involves cloning or white slavery. But why would egg donations and surrogate motherhood be considered problems? If we accept that life begins at the moment of fertilization and that a woman owns her body and everything within it - why should she not be allowed to sell her eggs or to host another's baby and how would these voluntary acts be morally repugnant? In any case, human eggs are already being bought and sold and the supply far exceeds the demand.

Moreover, full-fledged humans are routinely "routinised, commercialized, and commodified" by governments, corporations, religions, and other social institutions. Consider war, for instance - or commercial advertising. How is the "routinisation, commercialization, and commodification" of embryos more reprehensible that the "routinisation, commercialization, and commodification" of fully formed human beings?

Curing and Saving Life

Cell therapy based on stem cells often leads to tissue rejection and necessitates costly and potentially dangerous immunosuppressive therapy. But when the stem cells are harvested from the patient himself and cloned, these problems are averted. Therapeutic cloning has vast untapped - though at this stage still remote - potential to improve the lives of hundreds of millions.

As far as "designer babies" go, pre-natal cloning and genetic engineering can be used to prevent disease or cure it, to suppress unwanted traits, and to enhance desired ones. It is the moral right of a parent to make sure that his progeny suffers less, enjoys life more, and attains the maximal level of welfare throughout his or her life.

That such technologies can be abused by over-zealous, or mentally unhealthy parents in collaboration with avaricious or unscrupulous doctors - should not prevent the vast majority of stable, caring, and sane parents from gaining access to them.

GoArticles.com © 2012, All Rights Reserved/The Debate about Cloning - Part II  

Ecosystem of the Coral Reefs

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Ecosystem of the coral reefs is very vulnerable. These creatures are usually the first to die during ecological catastrophes.

Coral reefs are often called "rainforests of the sea". They are home to a quarter of the marine species and play a key role in ecosystems of seas and oceans maintaining their biological diversity. Coral reefs that originated more than 200 millions year ago, are themselves a very old and productive ecosystem. Apart from an important role they play in the environment they are also important for the development of tourism, fishing industry and health care. But they are reducing in numbers nowadays.

Coral reefs are one of the most beautiful and at the same time the most vulnerable species. They can be found in tropical and subtropical water in a variety of sizes. They form small rocks and The Great Barrier Reef stretching for over 2,300 kilometers along the coast of Australia is the largest structure formed by a living creature in the world. But even small reefs are home to thousands of marine species and algae which form a complicated and dynamic ecosystem.

In tropic waters where there are coral reefs there are also many species of fish as well as other marine plants and animals which play an important role in reefs' productivity thus benefiting people as about 100 millions people live in the costal areas and are directly dependent on the ecosystem or the coral reefs as people there mainly live on fishing and tourism.

Circular groups of coral islets form atolls which are sometimes inhabited by people.

Building stone which contains coral residuals finds its application as constructional material used for inner and outer decoration of the houses. Millions of years ago it was shell limestone and consisted of sediments, corals and mollusks shells but with the course of time it turned into a solid rock, and peculiar patterns left by corals and layers of different minerals can be seen on its surface.

Coral jewelry is becoming popular nowadays. Fishing nets are usually used to get corals from the sea bottom. As "first class" corals are really rare only a small amount of the caught corals is culled out to be further uses as jewelry. Nowadays there is an urge need to use environmentally friendly ways of coral harvesting. Such methods are costlier but less harmful for coral colonies.

There are many reasons corals die: water pollution, global warming, extinction of species that are part of coral reef ecosystems.

If people don't do anything to reduce pollution and restore coral reef population then in some fifty years there can be no coral reefs at all on our planet. This would influence the whole ecosystem of seas and oceans.

Thus people will have to do their best to save reefs and this should be done in the shortest time possible.

[http://www.coral-jewelry.org/]

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/Ecosystem of the Coral Reefs

Hybridization

Hybridization defined: To produce or cause to produce hybrids; crossbreed. If the definition isn't working for you I'll explain it. A Hybrid is a finch (though this applies to all animals) that is produced from the pairing of two different species of finch. A rather common example is an Owl finch and Zebra finch pair. When bred together they produce an Owl/Zebra Finch Hybrid. The hybrid will exhibit traits of both the Zebra finch and the Owl finch. Often they literally look like a blend of the two species. Hybrids do occur in the wild as well in aviary set-ups. There are rather significant flaws with hybrids, which is why I am against the idea of intentionally producing them. Flaws: Let's go to the wilderness first. While Hybrids do occur in nature they almost never develop into a viable species. The first major problem is that not all Hybrids work. Some species pairings simply will not produce young. They are far too genetically incompatible to produce a fertile egg. If offspring are produced and they survive they are often sterile and would never be able to breed with any other finch no matter which species they attempt to mate with. Of course before they can mate they must attract a finch of the opposite sex. Attracting a mate isn't always an easy task for them. They don't look or sound entirely like one species or the other. The potential mates simply view them as another finch. Looking unlike everyone else in the flock has broader complications than simply finding a mate. The coloring of finch species is used to attract a mate and to blend into the environment or confuse a predator. Because these Hybrids don't fit into either species they become extremely easy for a predator to spot and follow. If these finches survive to adulthood they have been very lucky. On top of it all, the Hybrids are a drain on the species gene pool. While their parents were producing them they aren't passing along their genes to young which would someday produce more. Many species of finch only breed once or twice a year. In many cases they have used their only breeding cycle for the year to produce these rather unique dead end babies. If something should happen to either or both of the parents before they can breed with their own species, that entire family line has been brought to a halt. If the gene pool becomes too small, inbreeding occurs. The aviary and finch breeding community these hybrids aren't well received. Granted these birds are unique and often odd looking. However they have no value to a breeder. At best you may be able pawn some off on a novice finch keeper or someone who has no interest in breeding finches. A true finch breeder and fancier will probably never pay for a hybrid finch. They simply consume food and produce nothing seeing as most are sterile. Hybrids are sometimes used to add color to a finch or alter its behavior. This is becoming quite popular in the European Goldfinch community. The Goldfinches are crossed with Canaries to give them a more uniform look, more yellow, and improve their song. These birds are now simply refereed to as Mules. The practice has become so wide spread that many sellers of European Goldfinches at bird fairs must label their birds as Mules or Pure. Mules are worth almost nothing and the Pure are becoming very hard to find and expensive. This is where the big problem with hybrids comes into play. European Goldfinch's aren't exactly a thriving market in many areas of the world. In places within the US they are even becoming hard to find and the prices are going up. The breeders who are exclusively producing these Mules aren't producing pure European Goldfinches. This is driving their price up and the available gene pool down at an alarming rate. European Goldfinches are still being imported into the US from other countries. This helps bring in new blood, but once the import is stopped we are going to be in trouble. The export of many species from their native lands is now banned. The number of birds banned species is increasing yearly. There may well come a time when all the genetic diversity we have access to will be what's currently living in the USA. If too many breeders spend their time producing hybrids will we have terrible shortages. This can lead to inbreeding very quickly. Good Points: Acceptance of a hybrid into an established aviary isn't usually a problem. Finches either will get along with other species or they won't. It doesn't matter what the other finch looks like in most cases. Hybrids while being infertile can be useful as foster parents. They are also good if you want to stock an aviary with unique looking and non-breeding finches. Best of all they are often cheap or free. As I stated earlier, they have no value in the finch trade. They are also not recognized by any serious finch organization. Sorry I'm leaking back towards the bad again. The Society Finch: Many believe the Society is the result of hybridization. Many others and myself now have their doubts about this. It has been argued that the species was created with the careful hybridization of the Striated Finch and the Indian Silverbill. A slightly more plausible idea is that the Society is simply a domestic version of the Striated Finch (White-rumped Mannikin). They do share some physical and behavioral features with the Society finch where as the Silverbill doesn't. © lady gouldian finch.com 2011 Why Supplement? Confused about the role Vitamin Supplements play in your bird's wellness? Learn More Why is my Gouldian BALD? Balding in the Gouldian Finch is common. Learn More Hand Feeding Finches ...it's possible but not easy. Supplies, schedules, formula, brooder, hygiene and weaning. Learn More Source : http://www.ladygouldianfinch.com – 5404 Alton Parkway, Suite 357, Irvine CA 92604 800.579.7974 We have been celebrating serving you since 2000! Copyright 2011 All Rights Reserved

Carp Seed Production In India

The availability of quality seed is prerequisite for rapid expansion and growth of aquaculture. However, uncertainty in timely seed supply is one of the major constraints, says Mr Radheyshyam at the Aquaculture Production and Environment Division, Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture Kaushalyagang, India. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific Considering its significance constant efforts have been made to produce large quantity of carp seed every year in increasing trends. For instance, the total fry production in India was estimated at 632 million in 1986-87 which had increased to 18.5 billion in 2002-2003 and in 2005-06 it was over 22.6 billion. Quantified data on larger size fingerlings and/or yearlings are not available, although it is much needed for grow out culture. Fish seed production includes egg to spawn production for 3 days, spawn to fry nursing for 15-20 days, fry to fingerling rearing for 60-90 days and fingerling to yearling rearing for 8-9 months. Thus the carp seed may be categorised at its final size into spawn (6-8 mm size), fry (20-25 mm size), fingerlings (100-150 mm size) and yearlings (100-200 g weight). Mass production of carp eggs in a spawning pool Mass production of carp eggs in a spawning pool. The distribution system of carp seed is complex and dynamic. Though some of the entrepreneurs produce and supply the fish seed to end users often as a part of complex networks, their supply remains erratic in other part, particularly in rural sectors1. The gap between demand and supply of quality seeds, by and large, remains a daunting task in rural aquaculture development. This can be mitigated, if village farmers produce quality carp seed in their ponds to not only make the access of locally produced and nursed quality seed to the fish farmers but also stimulate and support neighbouring farmers to adopt fish culture within their situation. Earlier studies indicate that paucity of carp spawn compelled village farmers to stock their ponds with riverine fish seed and due to lack of technical support and basic infrastructure facilities; carp breeding was rarely adopted by farmers. In view of this various attempts have been made to demonstrate carp breeding, spawn to fry rearing and fry to fingerling rearing and fingerling to yearling rearing in rural area. Despite pointed extension focus in this regard, the sustainability aspect of the production of carp seed by the farmers still remains a missing link. Present communication summarises the carp spawn production and seed rearing management by the fish farmers of Orissa by citing examples of some selected cases. What is rural carp seed production? Rural carp seed production may be defined as “carp seed production by small-scale households or communities using mainly extensive and semi-intensive management appropriate to existing resource base for their own use and/ or improving their family income” or “carp seed production using technologies adapted to locally available and limited resources of households”. Rural carp seed production is not very capital intensive or input intensive and contributes to rural livelihoods. It is different from more commercially carp seed production systems or entrepreneurial carp seed production. Evolving rural to entrepreneurial carp seed producers The system of carp seed production process is a continuum and it is very difficult to strictly divide rural from entrepreneurial fish seed producers. In fact, many farmers who have been involved in subsistence level carp seed production increased their production over the years, with the more inputs and better management skill, resulting in enlarging their resource base and gradually becoming entrepreneurial. For example, a farmer who used to stock spawn in unprepared pond because of not knowing the technique of pond preparation, when came to know, followed the technique strictly and got better recovery and more income. Thus over a period of few years he could afford more inputs and intensifies his management and becomes entrepreneurial seed producer. It is more desirable to make the resource poor farmers entrepreneurial farmers in rural area. Such evolution is already taking place with the time. For instances, farmers of Sarakana village evolved as carp seed entrepreneurs from traditional carp seed producer. Spawn production in rural area Common spawn production In rural areas generally carp spawn are generally produced twice during June-August and January-March of the year, following the adaptive breeding methods. Pond breeding: Common carp brood fish are reared in composite fish culture ponds. In season, clean aquatic weeds such as Hydrilla / Najaj or water hyacinth are placed in pond’s corners or inside floating bamboo frames in the evening hours. During late night to early morning fish breed naturally and eggs are attached to aquatic weeds. Since water hyacinth is floating, the eggs get attached on the roots only. The egg loaded aquatic weeds are collected in morning hours and kept for incubation in hatching hapas or directly spread in well prepared nursery ponds. However, in nursery spread eggs the spawn survival is very poor than hapa hatching. This method has certain disadvantages like: difficult to estimate eggs, egg predation by pond animals, poor egg fertilisation etc. Release of carp spawns in incubation pool. Release of carp spawns in incubation pool. Hapa breeding: Brood fish are reared either in separate ponds or in composite fish culture ponds. Brood fish are netted out to segregate mature males and females. They are weighed and kept in breeding hapa containing suitable egg collectors in evening hours. Generally 3-4 kg Hydrilla/ kg female fish is used as egg collector. Males and females are kept in ratio of 1:1 by weight. They breed naturally in hapa after 6-8 hrs. In less suitable condition fishes are injected with inducing hormones to ensure breeding. After spawning, the females are weighed to estimate the egg release. About 12-15 per cent of the weight difference goes towards faecal matter of fish and rest weight difference is due to egg release in ovary. One gram weight difference in ovary provides an estimate of 700 egg release. Egg attached 2-4 kg Hydrilla is spread per inner hatching hapa. Depending on water temperature, hatching takes place in 2 days and inner hatching hapas are removed in 3 days. After 4-5 days, spawn are collected for stocking in nursery ponds. Hatchery breeding: Some of the village hatchery owners use breeding pools for common carp spawning. They use nylon threads or plastic threads or plastic nets or Hydrilla or water hyacinth as egg collectors. Egg incubation is carried out in hatching pools. Indian and exotic major carp spawn production Hapa breeding: In remote villages brood fish are grown in composite fish culture ponds. During monsoon season they are netted out and fully mature males and females are selected. Breeding hapas are fixed in composite fish culture ponds having common carps. Presence of common carp, prawns and crabs cause severe damage to carp eggs in breeding hapas. Hence, to avoid hazards of loss of viable eggs, the breeding hapas are fixed inside the net enclosure. Generally for one female two males are used. Intra-muscular and/or intra-peritorial injection is administered to brood fish during June-October. Females are injected with PG extract or glycerine extract of PG twice but males are injected only once. First dose is given in the evening hours to female @ 5-6mg/kg and second dose after 4-6 hours of fi rst injection @ 8-16 mg/kg. Males are injected at the time of second dose of female @ 4-5mg/kg male. Presently synthetic hormones (ovaprim or ovatide) are used as inducing agents in rural areas. Both the males and females are injected only once. These synthetic hormones are administered @ 0.2-0.5 ml/ kg female and 0.1-0.2 ml/kg male. After 4-6 hours of injection fish spawn. Fertilised eggs are identified and quantified at comma stage of embryos and hatching are done using hapa hatching device. Spawn are collected after 72-80 hours of hatching by filtering with inner hatching hapa with the spawn recovery of only 24-44 per cent of the fertilised eggs. The low recovery of spawn from hapa hatching device could be due to a combination of factors such as cutting of hapas by crabs and/or large freshwater prawns, entry of unwanted fishes in hatching hapas8, presence of predatory cyclopoid copepods in hatching hapas and sudden change in water temperature, depletion of DO content, water bloom and cyclonic weather. Hatchery breeding: For hatchery breeding, brood stocks are maintained in separate ponds by stoking 1-3t/ha brood fish under scientific management. Brood fishes are injected with inducing hormones as mentioned in hapa breeding. In rural areas the spawning is done in breeding hapa and/or spawning pool but hatching is done in incubation pools. Two-three year old carps weighing 2-5 kg are the best for hypophysation. “Eco-hatchery” is used by the village entrepreneurs. It includes overhead tank, spawning pools, egg collection chamber, incubation pools and spawn collection chamber. An overhead tank is generally made on the roof of single or double storied building and a water holding capacity of 5000 litre can supply water to spawning and incubation pools. Depending upon the requirements, the sizes of spawning pools vary. Spawning pool is 8-9 m diameter and 1.0-1.5 m deep with the provision of water circulatory system and shower. Farmers use 20-30 kg female per spawning pool and produce 250-400 litres of carp eggs in one operation. These eggs are incubated in 3-5 hatching pools. Incubation pools are 3-4m inside diameter and 1 m deep. Generally 1 egg is incubated in one ml water. During egg incubation, farmers maintain water flow @ 2.5 l/sec. initially, @ 2.0 l / sec at twisting movements of embryos and @ 3.5 l/sec after hatching to get better spawn recovery. Farmers harvest 800,000 to 1,000,000 spawn/pool/operation. KVK/TTC, CIFA designed and fabricated portable FRP carp hatchery in 1989 with the maximum spawn recovery of 3,000,000 lakh / operation/pool, now modified and commercialised by CIFA and it is used by the village entrepreneurs to produce carp spawn. From hatchery breeding farmers get 80-95 per cent recovery from the viable eggs. By adopting circular carp hatchery some of the rural fish farmers changed into entrepreneurial seed producers. Success cases of carp spawn production Carp spawn production at Sarakana: Farmers from the Sarakana village started carp spawn production in 1987 with common carp and produced 3.5 lakh spawn in hapa - breeding. Gradually they learnt the induced breeding techniques of Indian major carps and exotic carps in hapa. Carp spawn production increased to 1,440,000-8,555,000 up to 1995. The spawn recovery was poor and ranged between 24-44 per cent. To mitigate the problems of poor recovery of spawn in hapa, they have been motivated by KVK/TTC, CIFA to construct a cemented circular hatchery in 1995 which resulted higher spawn recovery of 74-85 per cent from 1996 onwards. This resulted in producing 15,750,000-31,950,000 spawn of Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella and Hypophthalmychthys molitrix annually. To meet the market demand of carp spawn in the region, they ploughed back their hard earned money to construct another carp hatchery with higher production effi ciency. As a result of which they are able to produce 100-150 million carp spawn annually. This suggests that traditional seed production in rural area transformed into entrepreneurial seed production by utilising the improved technology. They produce carp seed not only to meet the market demands but also earn handsome income and employment. Carp fry production in rural area Carp fry production in rural area. Carp spawn production at Kantapada: Farmers from Kantapada village initiated carp spawn production in 1996 using hapa breeding device. With spawn recovery of 25-40 per cent of viable eggs, they produced 40, 50, 67and 42 lakh spawn during 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999. After realising the poor spawn recovery, farmers constructed one circular carp hatchery and now they are producing 40-60 million carp spawn annually. Carp spawn production at Bhatapadgarh: Carp breeding was started with hapa breeding with the technical guidance of CIFA, Kausalyagang in stored rain water in ponds constructed at hilly terrains during 2002. Farmers have been trained through participatory approach in carp breeding skills. During skill learning farmers could produce 1,100,000 carp spawn with 20-40 per cent recovery in hapa breeding. Meanwhile, they constructed one commercial carp hatchery during 2003 and made it operational through the technical guidance of the author in 2004. Now farmers are producing 50-110 million spawn of C. catla, L. rohita, C. mrigala, C. carpio, L. calbasu, C. idella and H. molitrix every year at the hilly terrains to meet the regional demand. By seeing the economic profitability in carp spawn production, many of the neighbouring farmers and entrepreneurs have constructed carp hatchery to produce carp spawn to meet the local carp seed demand. Carp fry and fingerling rearing in rural areas In rural area, spawn to fry nursing is carried out in smaller ponds of 0.02-0.05 ha (0.5-1.0m depth). In same perennial ponds fry, fingerling and/or yearlings are reared in succession during June-July, August-November and December-June respectively. Alternatively the ponds are stocked with carp fry and rearing of fingerlings and yearlings are continued in succession. For rearing larger size carp fingerlings 0.05-0.1 ha with an average depth of 1.0-2.0m are preferred. Ponds shaded by trees are rendered unproductive by reduced sunlight. Accumulation of leaf litter and an excessive organic load in the pond further deteriorates water quality, adversely affecting carp and carp food organisms. At times, masses of foamy brown/white frog eggs, which tend to fall into ponds during rains, caused a proliferation of tadpoles. Therefore, marginal trees and bushes are cleared before launching the seed raising programme. Pond embankments are renovated with the provision of secured inlet and outlet. Since backyard ponds are shallow and small, aquatic weed clearance is completed manually by rural farmers. Predatory animals/ fishes and weed fishes are eradicated by de-watering and drying the ponds or application of suitable piscicides. Raw cattle dung is applied as basal manure in ponds. To enhance the fertilisation effect liming is done. For sustained production of natural fish food organisms a mixture of de-oiled cake, cattle dung/ bio-gas slurry and single super phosphate or a multiplex pre mineral mixture and vitamins are used in liquid forms before 4-5 days of spawn stocking. Fry are harvested and/or thinned in phases according to the local demand, allowing an extended period of rearing (14-44 days) in rural area. Prolonged retention of fry in nursery ponds adversely affects the fry survival. Fry recovery is 20-40 per cent. Stocking spawn at shallow water depth (35-45 cm) followed by phased increase of water level at 3 - 4 days intervals, results higher fry recovery of 50-70 per cent. Fortification of micro-nutrients in artificial feeds is also enhances the growth and survival of fry. A commercially available multiplex pre-minerals mixture with vitamins accelerates plankton production and fry survival in nursery ponds. In case ponds are used for fry rearing, fry are harvested by repeated netting on day 15-20 of stocking. At times, two crops of fry are taken. After fry harvesting, the ponds are fertilised with the mixture of above manure to produce adequate natural fish-food organisms. On day 2 or 3 of fertilisation, the fresh fry are stocked along with residual fry in such a way to maintain the density of 300,000-500,000/ ha. Later a mixture of above fertilisers is applied in liquid form at weekly or fortnightly intervals. Fingerlings are also fed traditionally and harvested by repeated netting after three months of rearing. Success cases of fry and fingerling production Fry and fingerling production at Sarakana village: Farmers from the Sarakana village started carp fry raising in one pond of 0.08ha and produced only 220,000 fry and 40,000 fingerlings. High profitability in fry and fingerling rearing work encouraged the farmers to invest money for creating more facilities by constructing two other ponds in 1988 and produced 384,000 fry and over 100,000 fingerlings. Since then every year the farmers expanded their activities by excavating new ponds and at preset 23 ponds of 0.02-0.1ha each are available for fry and fingerling production. Now they are producing 4,300,000-6,000,000 lakh fry and 440,000- 570,000 fingerlings every year. Fry and fingerling production at Kantapada village: In this village fish seed nursing was initiated in 1983 by using 12 nursery ponds. Ponds were prepared and stocked @ 30-50 lakh spawn/ha. The fry were harvested after 30-45 days with the recovery of 15-30 per cent. With the time farmers acquired scientific management practices and expanded rearing area to 20 ponds (2.0 ha) gradually. Farmers are harvesting carp fry within 12-20 days with the recovery of 35-60 per cent. Multicropping of fry production is also done. They are able to harvest 3,000,000-7,600,000 fry annually. The same ponds are used for fingerling rearing with the production of over 300,000-600,000 fingerlings every year. Fry and fingerling production at Bhatapadagarh village: Terrace type a series of 17 nursery and rearing ponds (0.05-0.17ha) are constructed with a network of inlets and outlets systems during 2003 to store huge quantity of water fl owing in from the hilly terrains.These ponds were prepared by manuring, liming and insect control and stocked with carp spawn @ 3,000,000-6,000,000/ha. Ponds were harvested after 20-30 days of rearing with the recovery of 20-60 per cent yielding about 5,900,000 fry from July to September in 1 or 2 crops. After developing confidence in economic profitability, the farmers also started using even large size ponds of 0.5-0.7ha for stocking carp spawn at shallower depth followed by phased increase of water level for commercial fry and fingerling production. They are producing 6,000,000- 15,000,000 fry and 100,000-800,000 fingerlings of catla, rohu, mrigal, calbasu, common carp, silver carp, and grass carp every year for supply in the region. Large sized fingerling and yearling production Yearlings are produced traditionally in village ponds. When farmers fail to sale their fingerlings and they continue to rear them up to May-June. Before monsoon, when ponds are prepared for next fry rearing crops, farmers harvest stunted fish for consumption as they are grown with reduced nutrient uptake. But now a days with the increased awareness of yearlings significance as stocking materials, it is being sold at pond site for grow out fish culture. When stunted fingerlings are kept on a high quality diet they grow rapidly leading efficient body weight. Some of the village fish farmers produce yearlings and/or stunted fingerlings with improved management on commercial scale. In this, the fingerlings stocked in well prepared ponds at high density July-August. Yearlings are also reared by stocking appropriate carp fingerlings along with residual stock of fingerlings. During culture period ponds are fertilised monthly once. Fingerlings are fed with the mixture of ground nut oil cake and rice bran in the ratio of 1:1 by weight @ 4-6 per cent of the body weight. Complete harvesting of yearlings is done by repeated netting from May-June. Adopting this management the farmers of Kantapada and Bhatpadagarh are producing 3-5 tonnes of yearlings every year. Acknowledgements Author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. A. E. Eknath, Director of Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Kaushalyagang and Dr J.K. Jena, Aquaculture Production and Environment Division for their constant encouragement and inspiration for this work. Thanks are also due to Dr. H. K. De, Sr. Scientist for critically going through the manuscript and improving suggestions. Source : http://www.thefishsite.com/articles/936/carp-seed-production-in-india 5M Enterprises Ltd., Benchmark House, 8 Smithy Wood Drive, Sheffield, S35 1QN, England. 5M Enterprises Inc., Suite 4120, CBoT, 141 West Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, IL, 60604-2900, USA. Contact TheFishSite | Terms and Conditions | Privacy Policy | Disclaimer Co. Registration 3332321 - VAT No. 100 1348 86 - A Benchmark Holdings Ltd. Company

Blood Sugar Regulation

Ads by Google Daido Industries INC. Blood Bank Refrigerator / Freezer Incubator / Agitator / Cold Bench www.daido-ind.co.jp Osmometer made in Germany Fast and effective measuring - competent after sales service! www.gonotec.com Most cells in the human body use the sugar called glucose as their major source of energy. Glucose molecules are broken down within cells in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules, energy-rich molecules that power numerous cellular processes. Glucose molecules are delivered to cells by the circulating blood and therefore, to ensure a constant supply of glucose to cells, it is essential that blood glucose levels be maintained at relatively constant levels. Level constancy is accomplished primarily through negative feedback systems, which ensure that blood glucose concentration is maintained within the normal range of 70 to 110 milligrams (0.0024 to 0.0038 ounces) of glucose per deciliter (approximately one-fifth of a pint) of blood. Negative feedback systems are processes that sense changes in the body and activate mechanisms that reverse the changes in order to restore conditions to their normal levels. Negative feedback systems are critically important in homeostasis, the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions. Disruptions in homeostasis lead to potentially life-threatening situations. The maintenance of relatively constant blood glucose levels is essential for the health of cells and thus the health of the entire body. Major factors that can increase blood glucose levels include glucose absorption by the small intestine (after ingesting a meal) and the production of new glucose molecules by liver cells. Major factors that can decrease blood The homeostatic regulation of glucose concentrations. The homeostatic regulation of glucose concentrations. glucose levels include the transport of glucose into cells (for use as a source of energy or to be stored for future use) and the loss of glucose in urine (an abnormal event that occurs in diabetes mellitus). Insulin and Glucagon In a healthy person, blood glucose levels are restored to normal levels primarily through the actions of two pancreatic hormones , namely insulin and glucagon. If blood glucose levels rise (for example, during the fed or absorptive state, when a meal is digested and the nutrient molecules are being absorbed and used), the beta cells of the pancreas respond by secreting insulin. Insulin has several notable effects: (1) it stimulates most body cells to increase their rate of glucose uptake (transport) from the blood; (2) it increases the cellular rate of glucose utilization as an energy source; (3) it accelerates the formation of glycogen from glucose in liver and skeletal muscle cells; and (4) it stimulates fat synthesis (from glucose) in liver cells and adipose (fat) tissue. These effects collectively cause a decrease in blood glucose levels back to normal levels. If blood glucose levels fall below normal levels (for instance, during the post-absorptive or fasting state, when nutrients from a recently digested meal are no longer circulating in the blood, or during starvation), insulin secretion is inhibited and, at the same time, the alpha cells of the pancreas respond by secreting glucagon, a hormone that has several important effects: (1) it accelerates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in liver and skeletal muscle cells; (2) it increases the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol in adipose tissue and, consequently, the release of these substances into the blood (which cells can thus use for energy); and (3) it stimulates liver cells to increase glucose synthesis (from glycerol absorbed from the blood) and glucose release into the blood. These effects collectively cause an increase in blood glucose levels back to normal levels. In addition to insulin and glucagon, there are several other hormones that can influence blood glucose levels. The most important ones are epinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone, all of which can increase blood glucose levels. Diseases and Blood Sugar Regulation Glucose levels above or below the normal range are indicative of the presence of disease states. For example, elevated glucose levels are present in diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, liver disease, and hyperthyroidism, while decreased glucose levels are present in Addison's disease, hyperinsulinism, and hypothyroidism. The most prevalent of these diseases is diabetes mellitus. There are two types of this disease: Type I (insulin-dependent or juvenile-onset) diabetes mellitus, and Type II (noninsulin-dependent or maturity-onset) diabetes mellitus. In Type I diabetes, pancreatic beta cells are destroyed by an erroneous attack by the body's own immune system, and thus insulin secretion is reduced to negligible levels. In Type II diabetes, insulin secretion is not reduced; however, there is a reduced sensitivity of target cells to insulin, a phenomenon known as insulin resistance. Source: http://www.biologyreference.com Copyright © 2011 Advameg, Inc.

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Photosynthesis Photosynthesis, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in cells that contain chlorophyll, a green pigment. Photosynthesis occurs in most plants and algae and in some bacteria and protozoans. The process is also called carbon fixation, because it includes the production of carbon compounds that store the chemical energy for use in cell growth. These compounds—mainly sugars and starches, collectively called carbohydrates—also serve as building blocks for more complex foods, such as fats and proteins. For photosynthesis to occur, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, and light are necessary. The Reactions of Photosynthesis Two main chemical reactions occur in photosynthesis. One takes place only in the presence of light and is called the light reaction; the other can occur with or without light and is called the dark reaction. The Light Reaction has the following steps: * Light enters a cell and is absorbed by chlorophyll. The light's energy raises the energy level of some chlorophyll electrons, freeing them from the chlorophyll molecules. * Molecules of water (H2O) from the environment take part in chemical reactions in the cell. Electrons from the hydrogen atoms in each of these water molecules are attracted to the chlorophyll molecules lacking the electrons freed in step 1. This attraction causes the water molecules to break apart into oxygen atoms, protons, and electrons. The oxygen atoms join together in pairs, forming molecules of oxygen. Oxygen molecules, called free oxygen, are released into the environment. * The electrons freed from the chlorophyll molecules and the protons freed from the water molecules take part in chemical reactions in the cell. These reactions result in the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide diphosphate (NADPH2). The Dark Reaction The chemical energy possessed by ATP and NADPH2 is used in making carbohydrates from hydrogen and carbon dioxide. (The carbon dioxide is obtained from the environment.) The carbohydrates then possess the chemical energy given up by ATP and NADPH2. The generalized, overall chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2+12H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O The carbohydrate in this equation (C6H12O6) is glucose, a simple sugar. Glucose is only one of several compounds that can be formed by photosynthesis. Importance of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the most important chemical process for life. Through photosynthesis, the sun's energy is made available to all organisms. For example, when an animal eats a plant, it obtains chemical energy that the plant acquired through photosynthesis; when a second animal eats a plant-eating animal, it obtains some of the chemical energy that the first animal obtained by eating plants. As organisms respire, they take in free oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. Respiration is dependent on photosynthesis because photosynthesis is the source of virtually all the free oxygen in the atmosphere and in bodies of water. In addition, photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and from bodies of water. If this carbon dioxide were not removed, it would eventually smother the organisms that produce it. Coal and petroleum, composed of the remains of various kinds of organisms, contain energy that was captured from the sun's rays by photosynthesis millions of years ago. © 1998-2011 HowStuffWorks, Inc

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Explore Jamur in Bangladesh Data peta ©2011 Google - Syarat Penggunaan Peta Peta Satelit Hibrida Medan Jamur in Dhaka Division is located in Bangladesh - about 10 mi (or 17 km) North-West of Dhaka, the Bangladeshi seat of the government. Local time in Jamur is Tuesday 12:35:16 PM. The local timezone is "Asia / Dhaka" with an UTC offset of 6 hours. Dhaka Tongi Purba Naodoba North Baiksa and Syamgaon are destinations relativly nearby and may be interesting to visit on your trip. According to our current information, there is one airport in the nearby. Have a look at our photo collection to get a view of what this places is like. Want to see what it's like?. No Problem with these videos related to Jamur. Need hints for finding things to see and want to get to know more about this place? Check our related Jamur attractions and wikipedia articles page. To get a first impression of the local parties, events and conferences, we looked up some events from eventful. National flag of Bangladesh Jamur Gallery Itabhara Bridge, Hemayetpur-Keraniganj Itabhara Bridge,... Uploaded by TheFirstKind on panoramio.com Uploaded by kadir441272 on panoramio.com * About Tripmondo & FAQ - * Privacy Policy - * © 2008 - 2011 Tripmondo * Tripmondo is a private and experimental project - A hommage to free, open and global online data sources. 00